4.2.4.2 Theo dõi Holter
Đã lâu, ở hầu hết các bệnh nhân, các triệu chứng không tái phát trong quá trình theo dõi, hiệu suất thực sự của việc theo dõi Holter trong ngất có thể thấp tới 1–2% trong một quần thể không được chọn.
TS. PHẠM HỮU VĂN
Ở 15% bệnh nhân, các triệu chứng không liên quan đến rối loạn nhịp tim. [161] Do đó, ở những bệnh nhân này, rối loạn nhịp có thể bị loại trừ như một nguyên nhân gây ra ngất. Theo dõi Holter trong ngất không tốn kém về chi phí thiết lập, nhưng tốn kém về chi phí cho mỗi chẩn đoán. [162] Theo dõi Holter trong ngất có thể có giá trị hơn nếu các triệu chứng thường xuyên. Một hoặc nhiều cơn hàng ngày của LOC có thể làm tăng khả năng tương quan triệu chứng ECG.
4.2.4.3 Ghi sự kiện ngoài định trước
Máy ghi sự kiện là thiết bị bên ngoài được bệnh nhân áp dụng khi các triệu chứng xuất hiện. Trong khi những máy ghi này có thể hữu ích trong việc điều tra đánh trống ngực, [163] chúng có vai trò cận biên trong việc đánh giá ngất.
4.2.4.4 Ứng dụng điện thoại thông minh
Vi cho đến nay các ứng dụng điện thoại thông minh đã ghi lại ECG thời gian thực, vai trò hiện tại của chúng trong ngất bị giới hạn vì lý do tương tự như đối với máy ghi sự kiện tương lai [164,165] Tuy nhiên, các bản ghi video gia đình rất hữu ích trong tất cả các dạng TLOC (xem phần 4.2 .5.2).
4.2.4.5 Ghi vòng lặp bên ngoài
Nói chung, máy ghi vòng lặp bên ngoài có hiệu suất chẩn đoán cao hơn so với theo dõi Holter. [162] Các máy ghi vòng lặp bên ngoài có thể hữu ích ở những bệnh nhân có các cơ ngất tương đối thường xuyên. [166–168] Trong một đăng ký quốc tế đa trung tâm gần đây, hiệu suất chẩn đoán ngất là 24,5%, với phát hiện phổ biến nhất là loạn nhịp tim; dự đoán mạnh mẽ hơn cho những phát hiện chẩn đoán đã được theo dõi sớm sau sự kiện chỉ điểm. [166]
4.2.4.6 Điều khiển (tại nhà) từ xa
Gần đây nhất, các hệ thống thiết bị ngoài và cấy được phát triển cung cấp việc ghi ECG liên tục hoặc bộ nhớ vi mạch 24 giờ với truyền không dây (thời gian thực) đến một trung tâm dịch vụ. Một số nghiên cứu gần đây đã chỉ ra việc thực hiện theo dõi từ xa làm tăng hiệu suất chẩn đoán và đạt được chẩn đoán sớm hơn là không theo dõi từ xa. [169–171]
4.2.4.7 Ghi vòng lặp có thể cấy (Implantable loop recorders)
Trong phân tích gộp 5 nghiên cứu ngẫu nhiên có đối chứng (RCT), [172–176] 660 bệnh nhân ngất không giải thích được ngẫu nhiên với chiến lược thông thường gồm máy ghi ngoài, test độ nghiêng và nghiên cứu điện sinh lý (EPS), hoặc theo dõi kéo dài bằng ILR. Kết quả cho thấy việc cấy ILR khởi đầu trong khám và chẩn đoánđãcung cấp 3,7 [CL 95%: 2,7–5,0] tăng xác suất tương đối của chẩn đoán so với chiến lược thông thường (xem Tư liệu Hỗ trợ Bảng 5). ILR đã có hiệu quả – chi phí hơn so với chiến lược kinh điển. [172,173,177,178] Trong dữ liệu tổng hợp từ 9 nghiên cứu [179] được thực hiện ở 506 bệnh nhân với ngất không giải thích được khi kết thúc việc khám và chẩn đoán hoàn toàn âm tính, tương quan giữa ngất và ECG được xác định ở 176 bệnh nhân (35%); trong số này, 56% có vô tâm thu (hoặc nhịp tim chậm trong một số trường hợp) tại thời điểm sự kiện được ghi nhận, 11% có nhịp tim nhanh, và 33% không có rối loạn nhịp tim. Tiền ngất ít có khả năng liên quan đến loạn nhịp tim hơn là ngất. Những phát hiện tương tự sau đó được quan sát thấy với việc sử dụng ILR được mở rộng trong giai đoạn đánh giá sớm ở những bệnh nhân có ngất tái phát có nguồn gốc không chắc chắn, trong trường hợp không có các tiêu chí nguy cơ cao và bệnh tim cấu trúc, [176,180–183] và trong ngất phản xạ được nghi ngờ. [184 –186] Đặc biệt, vô tâm thu hiện diện trong quá trình ngât ở khoảng 50% các bệnh nhân này.
Có một số lĩnh vực quan tâm khác với ngất không giải thích được, trong đó ILR đã được nghiên cứu:
• Các bệnh nhân block nhánh bó (BBB) ở người có block AV kịch phát có nhiều khả năng mặc dù Eps âm tính: rối loạn nhịp được quan sát ở 41% những bệnh nhân này (đang block AV kịch phát ở 70%) dưới sự quan sát của ILR, trên cơ sở tư liệu tổng hợp từ 3 nghiên cứu [174,187,188] (xem Tư liệu Hỗ trợ Bảng 6).
• Các bệnh nhân ở người động kinh được nghi ngờ nhưng điều trị đã được chứng minh không hiệu quả: trong tư liệu tổng hợp, sự tấn công có thể được chứng minh bằng tư liệu tử ILR ở 62% các bệnh nhân, với nguyên nhân rối loạn nhịp đang có thể chịu trách nhiệm ở 26% [137,189 191] (xem Tư liệu Hỗ trợ ở Bảng 7).
• Các bệnh nhân có ngã không giải thích được, trong tổng hợp các tài liệu, sự tần công có thể đã được chứng minh bằng ILR ở 70% các bệnh nhân, với nguyên nhân rối loạn nhịp đang có thể chịu trách nhiệm ở 14% [191–194] (xem Tư liệu Hỗ trợ Bảng 8).
• Các bệnh nhân bị HCM, bệnh cơ tim thất phải gây rối loạn nhịp (ARVC), hoặc các bệnh điện học tiên phát (xem phần 5.4).
4.2.4.8 Tiêu chuẩn chẩn đoán
Tiêu chuẩn vàng để chẩn đoán ngất do rối loạn nhịp khi có tương quan giữa triệu chứng và ghi ECG. [195,196] Sự hiện diện của loạn nhịp có ý nghĩa không triệu chứng – được định nghĩa như vô tâm thu kéo dài (> _3 s), nhịp tim nhanh trên thất nhanh (SVTs) ( tức l> 160 bpm cho > 32 nhắt bóp), hoặc nhịp nhanh thất (VT) – đã được nhiều tác giả xem là nhận định chẩn đoán. [185,188,197–199] Mặt khác, mặc dù không có tài liệu về chứng rối loạn nhịp tim trong quá trình cơn ngất không thể được xem xét là chẩn đoán chuyên biệt, nó cho phép loại trừ rối loạn nhịp như là cơ chế ngất. Hầu hết bằng chứng ủng hộ các tiêu chí chẩn đoán trên là gián tiếp dựa trên lợi ích của các liệu pháp cụ thể được hướng dẫn bằng việc theo dõi ECG trong việc ngăn ngừa tái phát ngất. [172,184–186,188,200]
Nếu như chất lượng bằng chứng là vừa phải, có sự đồng thuận mạnh mẽ dựa trên bằng chứng từ một số nghiên cứu có đối chứng có sự tương quan giữa các triệu chứng và rối loạn nhịp tim, hoặc sự hiện diện của một số rối loạn nhịp tim không triệu chứng (được xác định ở trên)thìchẩn đoán nguyên nhân của ngất và điều trị cụ thể phải được quy định.
Giới hạn chính của bất kỳ thiết bị theo dõi ECG nào là không có khả năng ghi lại BP cùng với ECG. Trong ngất phản xạ, các tài liệu về nhịp tim chậm / vô tâm thu trong một cơn ngất không loại trừ khả năng phản xạ hạ huyết áp ẩn là nguyên nhân chính của ngất, và nhịp tim chậm / vô tâm thu là biến cố trễ thứ phát. Vấn đề này có ý nghĩa quan trọng đối với điều trị (xem phần 5). Việc phân loại các bản ghi ECG bằng sinh lý bệnh có liên quan có thể xảy ra của chúng có sẵn trong phần Bảng 6 và Hướng dẫn Thực hành trên trang Web 8.
Còn nữa…
Tài liệu tham khảo
1. Ruwald MH, Hansen ML, Lamberts M, et al. The relation between age, sex, comorbidity, and pharmacotherapy and the risk of syncope: a Danish nationwide study. Europace: European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology: journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology. 2012; 14:1506-14.
2. Soteriades ES, Evans JC, Larson MG, et al. Incidence and prognosis of syncope. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002; 347:878-85.
3. Middlekauff HR, Stevenson WG, Stevenson LW, et al. Syncope in advanced heart failure: high risk of sudden death regardless of origin of syncope. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1993; 21:110-6.
4. Steinman RT, Herrera C, Schuger CD, et al. Wide QRS tachycardia in the conscious adult. Ventricular tachycardia is the most frequent cause. Jama. 1989; 261:1013-6.
5. Brugada P, Brugada J, Mont L, et al. A new approach to the differential diagnosis of a regular tachycardia with a wide QRS complex. Circulation. 1991; 83:1649-59.
6. Wellens HJ, Bar FW and Lie KI. The value of the electrocardiogram in the differential diagnosis of a tachycardia with a widened QRS complex. Am J Med. 1978; 64:27-33.
7. Elhendy A, Chandrasekaran K, Gersh BJ, et al. Functional and prognostic significance of exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias in patients with suspected coronary artery disease. Am. J. Cardiol. 2002; 90:95-100.
8. Grady TA, Chiu AC, Snader CE, et al. Prognostic significance of exercise-induced left bundle-branch block. Jama. 1998; 279:153-6.
9. Costantini O, Hohnloser SH, Kirk MM, et al. The ABCD (Alternans Before Cardioverter Defibrillator) Trial: strategies using T-wave alternans to improve efficiency of sudden cardiac death prevention. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009; 53:471-9.
10. Desai AD, Yaw TS, Yamazaki T, et al. Prognostic significance of quantitative QRS duration. Am J Med. 2006; 119:600-6.
11. Freedman RA, Alderman EL, Sheffield LT, et al. Bundle branch block in patients with chronic coronary artery disease: angiographic correlates and prognostic significance. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1987; 10:73-80.
12. Baldasseroni S, Opasich C, Gorini M, et al. Left bundle-branch block is associated with increased 1-year sudden and total mortality rate in 5517 outpatients with congestive heart failure: a report from the Italian network on congestive heart failure. Am. Heart J. 2002; 143:398-405.
13. Zimetbaum PJ, Buxton AE, Batsford W, et al. Electrocardiographic predictors of arrhythmic death and total mortality in the multicenter unsustained tachycardia trial. Circulation. 2004; 110:766-9.
14. Buxton AE, Sweeney MO, Wathen MS, et al. QRS duration does not predict occurrence of ventricular tachyarrhythmias in patients with implanted cardioverter-defibrillators. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005; 46:310-6.
15. Monasterio V, Martinez JP, Laguna P, et al. Prognostic value of average T-wave alternans and QT variability for cardiac events in MADIT-II patients. Journal of electrocardiology. 2013; 46:480-6.
16. Chow T, Kereiakes DJ, Onufer J, et al. Does microvolt T-wave alternans testing predict ventricular tachyarrhythmias in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy and prophylactic defibrillators? The MASTER (Microvolt T Wave Alternans Testing for Risk Stratification of Post-Myocardial Infarction Patients) trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 52:1607-15.
17. Gupta A, Hoang DD, Karliner L, et al. Ability of microvolt T-wave alternans to modify risk assessment of ventricular tachyarrhythmic events: a meta-analysis. Am. Heart J. 2012; 163:354-64.
18. Dhar R, Alsheikh-Ali AA, Estes NA, III, et al. Association of prolonged QRS duration with ventricular tachyarrhythmias and sudden cardiac death in the Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial II (MADIT-II). Heart rhythm. 2008; 5:807-13.
19. Bloomfield DM, Steinman RC, Namerow PB, et al. Microvolt T-wave alternans distinguishes between patients likely and patients not likely to benefit from implanted cardiac defibrillator therapy: a solution to the Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial (MADIT) II conundrum. Circulation. 2004; 110:1885-9.
20. Iuliano S, Fisher SG, Karasik PE, et al. QRS duration and mortality in patients with congestive heart failure. Am. Heart J. 2002; 143:1085-91.
21. Perez-Rodon J, Martinez-Alday J, Baron-Esquivias G, et al. Prognostic value of the electrocardiogram in patients with syncope: data from the group for syncope study in the emergency room (GESINUR). Heart rhythm. 2014; 11:2035-44.
22. Barrett PM, Komatireddy R, Haaser S, et al. Comparison of 24-hour Holter monitoring with 14-day novel adhesive patch electrocardiographic monitoring. Am J Med. 2014; 127:95-7.
23. de Asmundis C, Conte G, Sieira J, et al. Comparison of the patient-activated event recording system vs. traditional 24 h Holter electrocardiography in individuals with paroxysmal palpitations or dizziness. Europace : European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology : journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology. 2014; 16:1231-5.
24. Turakhia MP, Hoang DD, Zimetbaum P, et al. Diagnostic utility of a novel leadless arrhythmia monitoring device. Am. J. Cardiol. 2013; 112:520-4.
25. Linzer M, Pritchett EL, Pontinen M, et al. Incremental diagnostic yield of loop electrocardiographic recorders in unexplained syncope. Am. J. Cardiol. 1990; 66:214-9.
26. Bloch Thomsen PE, Jons C, Raatikainen MJ, et al. Long-term recording of cardiac arrhythmias with an implantable cardiac monitor in patients with reduced ejection fraction after acute myocardial infarction: the Cardiac Arrhythmias and Risk Stratification After Acute Myocardial Infarction (CARISMA) study. Circulation. 2010; 122:1258-64.
27. Volosin K, Stadler RW, Wyszynski R, et al. Tachycardia detection performance of implantable loop recorders: results from a large ‘real-life’ patient cohort and patients with induced ventricular arrhythmias. Europace: European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology: journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology. 2013; 15:1215-22.
28. Krahn AD, Klein GJ, Yee R, et al. Use of an extended monitoring strategy in patients with problematic syncope. Reveal Investigators. Circulation. 1999; 99:406-10.
29. Solbiati M, Costantino G, Casazza G, et al. Implantable loop recorder versus conventional diagnostic workup for unexplained recurrent syncope. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2016; 4:CD011637.
30. Solomon SD, Zelenkofske S, McMurray JJ, et al. Sudden death in patients with myocardial infarction and left ventricular dysfunction, heart failure, or both. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005; 352:2581-8.
31. Gula LJ, Klein GJ, Hellkamp AS, et al. Ejection fraction assessment and survival: an analysis of the Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure Trial (SCD-HeFT). Am. Heart J. 2008; 156:1196-200.
32. Korngold EC, Januzzi JL, Jr., Gantzer ML, et al. Amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein as predictors of sudden cardiac death among women. Circulation. 2009; 119:2868-76.
33. Patton KK, Sotoodehnia N, DeFilippi C, et al. N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide is associated with sudden cardiac death risk: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Heart rhythm. 2011; 8:228-33.
34. Scott PA, Barry J, Roberts PR, et al. Brain natriuretic peptide for the prediction of sudden cardiac death and ventricular arrhythmias: a meta-analysis. Eur. J Heart Fail. 2009; 11:958-66.
35. Blangy H, Sadoul N, Dousset B, et al. Serum BNP, hs-C-reactive protein, procollagen to assess the risk of ventricular tachycardia in ICD recipients after myocardial infarction. Europace: European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology: journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology. 2007; 9:724-9.
36. Ahmad T, Fiuzat M, Neely B, et al. Biomarkers of myocardial stress and fibrosis as predictors of mode of death in patients with chronic heart failure. JACC. Heart Fail. 2014; 2:260-8.
37. Levine YC, Rosenberg MA, Mittleman M, et al. B-type natriuretic peptide is a major predictor of ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Heart rhythm. 2014; 11:1109-16.
38. Berger R, Huelsman M, Strecker K, et al. B-type natriuretic peptide predicts sudden death in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 2002; 105:2392-7.
39. Buxton AE, Lee KL, Hafley GE, et al. Relation of ejection fraction and inducible ventricular tachycardia to mode of death in patients with coronary artery disease: an analysis of patients enrolled in the multicenter unsustained tachycardia trial. Circulation. 2002; 106:2466-72.
40. Buxton AE, Lee KL, Fisher JD, et al. A randomized study of the prevention of sudden death in patients with coronary artery disease. Multicenter Unsustained Tachycardia Trial Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999; 341:1882-90.
41. Buxton AE, Lee KL, DiCarlo L, et al. Electrophysiologic testing to identify patients with coronary artery disease who are at risk for sudden death. Multicenter Unsustained Tachycardia Trial Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000; 342:1937-45.
42. Moss AJ, Hall WJ, Cannom DS, et al. Improved survival with an implanted defibrillator in patients with coronary disease at high risk for ventricular arrhythmia. Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1996; 335:1933-40.
43. Bardy GH, Lee KL, Mark DB, et al. Amiodarone or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for congestive heart failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005; 352:225-37.
44. Moss AJ, Zareba W, Hall WJ, et al. Prophylactic implantation of a defibrillator in patients with myocardial infarction and reduced ejection fraction. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002; 346:877-83.
45. Hilfiker G, Schoenenberger AW, Erne P, et al. Utility of electrophysiological studies to predict arrhythmic events. World J Cardiol. 2015; 7:344-50.
46. Bourke JP, Richards DA, Ross DL, et al. Routine programmed electrical stimulation in survivors of acute myocardial infarction for prediction of spontaneous ventricular tachyarrhythmias during follow-up: results, optimal stimulation protocol and cost-effective screening. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991; 18:780-8.
47. Bailey JJ, Berson AS, Handelsman H, et al. Utility of current risk stratification tests for predicting major arrhythmic events after myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38:1902-11.
48. Schmitt C, Barthel P, Ndrepepa G, et al. Value of programmed ventricular stimulation for prophylactic internal cardioverter-defibrillator implantation in postinfarction patients preselected by noninvasive risk stratifiers. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 37:1901-7.
49. Brembilla-Perrot B, Suty-Selton C, Beurrier D, et al. Differences in mechanisms and outcomes of syncope in patients with coronary disease or idiopathic left ventricular dysfunction as assessed by electrophysiologic testing. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 44:594-601.
50. Bhandari AK, Shapiro WA, Morady F, et al. Electrophysiologic testing in patients with the long QT syndrome. Circulation. 1985; 71:63-71.
51. Giustetto C, Di MF, Wolpert C, et al. Short QT syndrome: clinical findings and diagnostic-therapeutic implications. Eur. Heart J. 2006; 27:2440-7.
52. Mahida S, Derval N, Sacher F, et al. Role of electrophysiological studies in predicting risk of ventricular arrhythmia in early repolarization syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015; 65:151-9.
53. Giustetto C, Schimpf R, Mazzanti A, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with short QT syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011; 58:587-95.
54. Raczak G, Pinna GD, Maestri R, et al. Different predictive values of electrophysiological testing and autonomic assessment in patients surviving a sustained arrhythmic episode. Circ. J. 2004; 68:634-8.
55. Brodsky MA, Mitchell LB, Halperin BD, et al. Prognostic value of baseline electrophysiology studies in patients with sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmia: the Antiarrhythmics Versus Implantable Defibrillators (AVID) trial. Am. Heart J. 2002; 144:478-84.
56. Daubert JP, Zareba W, Hall WJ, et al. Predictive value of ventricular arrhythmia inducibility for subsequent ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation in Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial (MADIT) II patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006; 47:98-107.
57. Daubert JP, Winters SL, Subacius H, et al. Ventricular arrhythmia inducibility predicts subsequent ICD activation in nonischemic cardiomyopathy patients: a DEFINITE substudy. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol. 2009; 32:755-61.
58. Gold MR, Bloomfield DM, Anderson KP, et al. A comparison of T-wave alternans, signal averaged electrocardiography and programmed ventricular stimulation for arrhythmia risk stratification. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 36:2247-53.
59. Gatzoulis KA, Vouliotis AI, Tsiachris D, et al. Primary prevention of sudden cardiac death in a nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy population: reappraisal of the role of programmed ventricular stimulation. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2013; 6:504-12.
60. Dargie HJ. Effect of carvedilol on outcome after myocardial infarction in patients with left-ventricular dysfunction: the CAPRICORN randomised trial. Lancet (London, England). 2001; 357:1385-90.
61. Packer M, Bristow MR, Cohn JN, et al. The effect of carvedilol on morbidity and mortality in patients with chronic heart failure. U.S. Carvedilol Heart Failure Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 1996; 334:1349-55.
62. The cardiac insufficiency Bisoprolol Study II (CIBIS-II): a randomised trial. Lancet (London, England). 1999; 353:9-13.
63. Hjalmarson A, Goldstein S, Fagerberg B, et al. Effects of controlled-release metoprolol on total mortality, hospitalizations, and well-being in patients with heart failure: the Metoprolol CR/XL Randomized Intervention Trial in congestive heart failure (MERIT-HF). MERIT-HF Study Group. Jama. 2000; 283:1295-302.
64. Cohn JN, Johnson G, Ziesche S, et al. A comparison of enalapril with hydralazine-isosorbide dinitrate in the treatment of chronic congestive heart failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991; 325:303-10.
65. Cohn JN and Tognoni G. A randomized trial of the angiotensin-receptor blocker valsartan in chronic heart failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001; 345:1667-75.
66. Pfeffer MA, McMurray JJ, Velazquez EJ, et al. Valsartan, captopril, or both in myocardial infarction complicated by heart failure, left ventricular dysfunction, or both. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003; 349:1893-906.
67. Pitt B, Segal R, Martinez FA, et al. Randomised trial of losartan versus captopril in patients over 65 with heart failure (Evaluation of Losartan in the Elderly Study, ELITE). Lancet (London, England). 1997; 349:747-52.
68. Pitt B, Poole-Wilson PA, Segal R, et al. Effect of losartan compared with captopril on mortality in patients with symptomatic heart failure: randomised trial–the Losartan Heart Failure Survival Study ELITE II. Lancet (London, England). 2000; 355:1582-7.
69. Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, et al. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999; 341:709-17.
70. Pitt B, Remme W, Zannad F, et al. Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003; 348:1309-21.
71. Zannad F, McMurray JJ, Krum H, et al. Eplerenone in patients with systolic heart failure and mild symptoms. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011; 364:11-21.
72. Desai AS, McMurray JJ, Packer M, et al. Effect of the angiotensin-receptor-neprilysin inhibitor LCZ696 compared with enalapril on mode of death in heart failure patients. Eur. Heart J. 2015; 36:1990-7.
73. Carson P, Wertheimer J, Miller A, et al. The STICH trial (Surgical Treatment for Ischemic Heart Failure): mode-of-death results. JACC. Heart Fail. 2013; 1:400-8.
74. Velazquez EJ, Lee KL, Jones RH, et al. Coronary-artery bypass surgery in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 2016; 374:1511-20.
75. Cook JR, Rizo-Patron C, Curtis AB, et al. Effect of surgical revascularization in patients with coronary artery disease and ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation in the Antiarrhythmics Versus Implantable Defibrillators (AVID) Registry. Am. Heart J. 2002; 143:821-6.
76. Mondésert B, Khairy P, Schram G, et al. Impact of revascularization in patients with sustained ventricular arrhythmias, prior myocardial infarction, and preserved left ventricular ejection fraction. Heart rhythm. 2016; 13:1221-7.
77. Ngaage DL, Cale AR, Cowen ME, et al. Early and late survival after surgical revascularization for ischemic ventricular fibrillation/tachycardia. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 2008; 85:1278-81.
78. Every NR, Fahrenbruch CE, Hallstrom AP, et al. Influence of coronary bypass surgery on subsequent outcome of patients resuscitated from out of hospital cardiac arrest. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992; 19:1435-9.
79. van der Burg AE, Bax JJ, Boersma E, et al. Impact of viability, ischemia, scar tissue, and revascularization on outcome after aborted sudden death. Circulation. 2003; 108:1954-9.
80. Dumas F, Cariou A, Manzo-Silberman S, et al. Immediate percutaneous coronary intervention is associated with better survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: insights from the PROCAT (Parisian Region Out of hospital Cardiac ArresT) registry. Circ. Cardiovasc Interv. 2010; 3:200-7.
81. Dumas F, Bougouin W, Geri G, et al. Emergency PCI in post-cardiac arrest patients without ST-segment elevation pattern: insights from the PROCAT II registry. JACC. Cardiovasc. Interv. 2016; 9:1011-8.
82. Serruys PW, Morice MC, Kappetein AP, et al. Percutaneous coronary intervention versus coronary-artery bypass grafting for severe coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2009; 360:961-72.
83. Milojevic M, Head SJ, Parasca CA, et al. Causes of death following PCI versus CABG in complex CAD: 5-year follow-up of SYNTAX. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016; 67:42-55.
84. Al-Khatib SM, Hellkamp AS, Lee KL, et al. Implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy in patients with prior coronary revascularization in the Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure Trial (SCD-HeFT). J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. 2008; 19:1059-65.
85. Nageh MF, Kim JJ, Chen LH, et al. Implantable defibrillators for secondary prevention of sudden cardiac death in cardiac surgery patients with perioperative ventricular arrhythmias. Journal of the American Heart Association. 2014; 3.
86. Kumar S, Barbhaiya CR, Sobieszczyk P, et al. Role of alternative interventional procedures when endo- and epicardial catheter ablation attempts for ventricular arrhythmias fail. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2015; 8:606-15.
87. Anter E, Hutchinson MD, Deo R, et al. Surgical ablation of refractory ventricular tachycardia in patients with nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2011; 4:494-500.
88. Bhavani SS, Tchou P, Saliba W, et al. Surgical options for refractory ventricular tachycardia. J Card Surg. 2007; 22:533-4.
89. Sartipy U, Albage A, Straat E, et al. Surgery for ventricular tachycardia in patients undergoing left ventricular reconstruction by the Dor procedure. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 2006; 81:65-71.
90. Choi EK, Nagashima K, Lin KY, et al. Surgical cryoablation for ventricular tachyarrhythmia arising from the left ventricular outflow tract region. Heart rhythm. 2015; 12:1128-36.
91. Patel M, Rojas F, Shabari FR, et al. Safety and Feasibility of Open Chest Epicardial Mapping and Ablation of Ventricular Tachycardia During the Period of Left Ventricular Assist Device Implantation. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. 2016; 27:95-101.
92. Mulloy DP, Bhamidipati CM, Stone ML, et al. Cryoablation during left ventricular assist device implantation reduces postoperative ventricular tachyarrhythmias. J Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 2013; 145:1207-13.
93. Schwartz PJ, Motolese M and Pollavini G. Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death After a First Myocardial Infarction by Pharmacologic or Surgical Antiadrenergic Interventions. Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology. 1992; 3:2-16.
94. Krittayaphong R, Bhuripanyo K, Punlee K, et al. Effect of atenolol on symptomatic ventricular arrhythmia without structural heart disease: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Am. Heart J. 2002; 144:e10.
95. Vaseghi M, Gima J, Kanaan C, et al. Cardiac sympathetic denervation in patients with refractory ventricular arrhythmias or electrical storm: intermediate and long-term follow-up. Heart rhythm. 2014; 11:360-6.
96. Ajijola OA, Lellouche N, Bourke T, et al. Bilateral cardiac sympathetic denervation for the management of electrical storm. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012; 59:91-2.
97. Ukena C, Mahfoud F, Ewen S, et al. Renal denervation for treatment of ventricular arrhythmias: data from an International Multicenter Registry. Clin. Res. Cardiol. 2016.
98. Grimaldi R, de LA, Kornet L, et al. Can spinal cord stimulation reduce ventricular arrhythmias? Heart rhythm. 2012; 9:1884-7.
99. Kudenchuk PJ, Brown SP, Daya M, et al. Amiodarone, lidocaine, or placebo in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 2016:1711-22.
100. Joglar JA and Page RL. Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest–Are Drugs Ever the Answer? N. Engl. J. Med. 2016; 374:1781-2.
101. Jacobs IG, Finn JC, Jelinek GA, et al. Effect of adrenaline on survival in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Resuscitation. 2011; 82:1138-43.
102. Piccini JP, Hranitzky PM, Kilaru R, et al. Relation of mortality to failure to prescribe beta blockers acutely in patients with sustained ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation following acute myocardial infarction (from the VALsartan In Acute myocardial iNfarcTion trial [VALIANT] Registry). Am J Cardiol. 2008; 102:1427-32.
103. Dorian P, Cass D, Schwartz B, et al. Amiodarone as compared with lidocaine for shock-resistant ventricular fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002; 346:884-90.
104. Hassan TB, Jagger C and Barnett DB. A randomised trial to investigate the efficacy of magnesium sulphate for refractory ventricular fibrillation. Emerg. Med. J. 2002; 19:57-62.
105. Thel MC, Armstrong AL, McNulty SE, et al. Randomised trial of magnesium in in-hospital cardiac arrest. Duke Internal Medicine Housestaff. Lancet (London, England). 1997; 350:1272-6.
106. Somberg JC, Bailin SJ, Haffajee CI, et al. Intravenous lidocaine versus intravenous amiodarone (in a new aqueous formulation) for incessant ventricular tachycardia. Am. J. Cardiol. 2002; 90:853-9.
107. Kudenchuk PJ, Cobb LA, Copass MK, et al. Amiodarone for resuscitation after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999; 341:871-8.
108. Callaham M, Madsen CD, Barton CW, et al. A randomized clinical trial of high-dose epinephrine and norepinephrine vs standard-dose epinephrine in prehospital cardiac arrest. Jama. 1992; 268:2667-72.
109. Gueugniaud PY, Mols P, Goldstein P, et al. A comparison of repeated high doses and repeated standard doses of epinephrine for cardiac arrest outside the hospital. European Epinephrine Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 1998; 339:1595-601.
110. Gorgels AP, van den Dool A, Hofs A, et al. Comparison of procainamide and lidocaine in terminating sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia. Am. J. Cardiol. 1996; 78:43-6.
111. Ho DS, Zecchin RP, Richards DA, et al. Double-blind trial of lignocaine versus sotalol for acute termination of spontaneous sustained ventricular tachycardia. Lancet (London, England). 1994; 344:18-23.
112. Levine JH, Massumi A, Scheinman MM, et al. Intravenous amiodarone for recurrent sustained hypotensive ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Intravenous Amiodarone Multicenter Trial Group. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996; 27:67-75.
113. Teo KK, Yusuf S and Furberg CD. Effects of prophylactic antiarrhythmic drug therapy in acute myocardial infarction. An overview of results from randomized controlled trials. Jama. 1993; 270:1589-95.
114. Elizari MV, Martinez JM, Belziti C, et al. Morbidity and mortality following early administration of amiodarone in acute myocardial infarction. GEMICA study investigators, GEMA Group, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Grupo de Estudios Multicentricos en Argentina. Eur. Heart J. 2000; 21:198-205.
115. Link MS, Berkow LC, Kudenchuk PJ, et al. Part 7: Adult Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2015; 132:S444-S64.
116. Herlitz J, Ekstrom L, Wennerblom B, et al. Lidocaine in out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation. Does it improve survival? Resuscitation. 1997; 33:199-205.
117. Markel DT, Gold LS, Allen J, et al. Procainamide and survival in ventricular fibrillation out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Acad. Emerg. Med. 2010; 17:617-23.
118. Stiell IG, Wells GA, Field B, et al. Advanced cardiac life support in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351:647-56.
119. Hagihara A, Hasegawa M, Abe T, et al. Prehospital epinephrine use and survival among patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Jama. 2012; 307:1161-8.
120. Donnino MW, Salciccioli JD, Howell MD, et al. Time to administration of epinephrine and outcome after in-hospital cardiac arrest with non-shockable rhythms: retrospective analysis of large in-hospital data registry. BMJ. 2014; 348:g3028.
121. Koscik C, Pinawin A, McGovern H, et al. Rapid epinephrine administration improves early outcomes in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2013; 84:915-20.
122. Spaulding CM, Joly LM, Rosenberg A, et al. Immediate coronary angiography in survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997; 336:1629-33.
123. Cronier P, Vignon P, Bouferrache K, et al. Impact of routine percutaneous coronary intervention after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation. Crit. Care. 2011; 15:R122.
124. Zanuttini D, Armellini I, Nucifora G, et al. Impact of emergency coronary angiography on in-hospital outcome of unconscious survivors after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Am. J. Cardiol. 2012; 110:1723-8.
125. Kudenchuk PJ, Newell C, White L, et al. Prophylactic lidocaine for post resuscitation care of patients with out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2013; 84:1512-8.
126. Nademanee K, Taylor R, Bailey WE, et al. Treating electrical storm: sympathetic blockade versus advanced cardiac life support-guided therapy. Circulation. 2000; 102:742-7.
127. Sasson C, Rogers MA, Dahl J, et al. Predictors of survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes. 2010; 3:63-81.
128. Buxton AE, Marchlinski FE, Doherty JU, et al. Hazards of intravenous verapamil for sustained ventricular tachycardia. Am. J. Cardiol. 1987; 59:1107-10.
129. Pellis T, Kette F, Lovisa D, et al. Utility of pre-cordial thump for treatment of out of hospital cardiac arrest: a prospective study. Resuscitation. 2009; 80:17-23.
130. Volkmann H, Klumbies A, Kuhnert H, et al. Terminating ventricular tachycardias by mechanical heart stimulation with precordial thumps. Z. Kardiol. 1990; 79:717-24.
131. A comparison of antiarrhythmic-drug therapy with implantable defibrillators in patients resuscitated from near-fatal ventricular arrhythmias. The Antiarrhythmics versus Implantable Defibrillators (AVID) Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997; 337:1576-83.
132. Connolly SJ, Gent M, Roberts RS, et al. Canadian implantable defibrillator study (CIDS): a randomized trial of the implantable cardioverter defibrillator against amiodarone. Circulation. 2000; 101:1297-302.
133. Kuck KH, Cappato R, Siebels J, et al. Randomized comparison of antiarrhythmic drug therapy with implantable defibrillators in patients resuscitated from cardiac arrest: the Cardiac Arrest Study Hamburg (CASH). Circulation. 2000; 102:748-54.
134. Connolly SJ, Hallstrom AP, Cappato R, et al. Meta-analysis of the implantable cardioverter defibrillator secondary prevention trials. AVID, CASH and CIDS studies. Antiarrhythmics vs Implantable Defibrillator study. Cardiac Arrest Study Hamburg. Canadian Implantable Defibrillator Study. Eur. Heart J. 2000; 21:2071-8.
135. Lau EW, Griffith MJ, Pathmanathan RK, et al. The Midlands Trial of Empirical Amiodarone versus Electrophysiology-guided Interventions and Implantable Cardioverter-defibrillators (MAVERIC): a multi-centre prospective randomised clinical trial on the secondary prevention of sudden cardiac death. Europace: European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology: journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology. 2004; 6:257-66.
136. Claro JC, Candia R, Rada G, et al. Amiodarone versus other pharmacological interventions for prevention of sudden cardiac death. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2015; 12:CD008093.
137. Raitt MH, Renfroe EG, Epstein AE, et al. “Stable” ventricular tachycardia is not a benign rhythm: insights from the antiarrhythmics versus implantable defibrillators (AVID) registry. Circulation. 2001; 103:244-52.
138. Bass EB, Elson JJ, Fogoros RN, et al. Long-term prognosis of patients undergoing electrophysiologic studies for syncope of unknown origin. Am J Cardiol. 1988; 62:1186-91.
139. Owens DK, Sanders GD, Heidenreich PA, et al. Effect of risk stratification on cost-effectiveness of the implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Am Heart J. 2002; 144:440-8.
140. Ahn JM, Lee KH, Yoo SY, et al. Prognosis of variant angina manifesting as aborted sudden cardiac death. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016; 68:137-45.
141. Yamashina Y, Yagi T, Namekawa A, et al. Favorable outcomes of patients with vasospastic angina associated with cardiac arrest. J Cardiol. 2014; 63:41-5.
142. Eschalier R, Souteyrand G, Jean F, et al. Should an implanted defibrillator be considered in patients with vasospastic angina? Arch. Cardiovasc Dis. 2014; 107:42-7.
143. Matsue Y, Suzuki M, Nishizaki M, et al. Clinical implications of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator in patients with vasospastic angina and lethal ventricular arrhythmia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012; 60:908-13.
144. Takagi Y, Yasuda S, Tsunoda R, et al. Clinical characteristics and long-term prognosis of vasospastic angina patients who survived out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: multicenter registry study of the Japanese Coronary Spasm Association. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2011; 4:295-302.
145. Meisel SR, Mazur A, Chetboun I, et al. Usefulness of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in refractory variant angina pectoris complicated by ventricular fibrillation in patients with angiographically normal coronary arteries. Am. J. Cardiol. 2002; 89:1114-6.
146. Chevalier P, Dacosta A, Defaye P, et al. Arrhythmic cardiac arrest due to isolated coronary artery spasm: long-term outcome of seven resuscitated patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31:57-61.
147. Myerburg RJ, Kessler KM, Mallon SM, et al. Life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias in patients with silent myocardial ischemia due to coronary-artery spasm. N. Engl. J. Med. 1992; 326:1451-5.
148. Saxon LA, Wiener I, Natterson PD, et al. Monomorphic versus polymorphic ventricular tachycardia after coronary artery bypass grafting. Am. J. Cardiol. 1995; 75:403-5.
149. Ascione R, Reeves BC, Santo K, et al. Predictors of new malignant ventricular arrhythmias after coronary surgery: a case-control study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 43:1630-8.
150. Steinberg JS, Gaur A, Sciacca R, et al. New-onset sustained ventricular tachycardia after cardiac surgery. Circulation. 1999; 99:903-8.
151. Bigger JT, Jr. Prophylactic use of implanted cardiac defibrillators in patients at high risk for ventricular arrhythmias after coronary-artery bypass graft surgery. Coronary Artery Bypass Graft (CABG) Patch Trial Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997; 337:1569-75.
152. Hohnloser SH, Kuck KH, Dorian P, et al. Prophylactic use of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator after acute myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351:2481-8.
153. Steinbeck G, Andresen D, Seidl K, et al. Defibrillator implantation early after myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 2009; 361:1427-36.
154. Piccini JP, Berger JS and O’Connor CM. Amiodarone for the prevention of sudden cardiac death: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur. Heart J. 2009; 30:1245-53.
155. Cantero-Perez EM, Sobrino-Marquez JM, Grande-Trillo A, et al. Implantable cardioverter defibrillator for primary prevention in patients with severe ventricular dysfunction awaiting heart transplantation. Transplantation proceedings. 2013; 45:3659-61.
156. Frohlich GM, Holzmeister J, Hubler M, et al. Prophylactic implantable cardioverter defibrillator treatment in patients with end-stage heart failure awaiting heart transplantation. Heart (British Cardiac Society). 2013; 99:1158-65.
157. Gandjbakhch E, Rovani M, Varnous S, et al. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in end-stage heart failure patients listed for heart transplantation: Results from a large retrospective registry. Archives of cardiovascular diseases. 2016; 109:476-85.
158. Vakil K, Duval S, Cogswell R, et al. Impact of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators on waitlist mortality among patients awaiting heart transplantation: an UNOS/OPTN analysis. JACCCEP. 2016.
159. Connolly SJ, Dorian P, Roberts RS, et al. Comparison of beta-blockers, amiodarone plus beta-blockers, or sotalol for prevention of shocks from implantable cardioverter defibrillators: the OPTIC Study: a randomized trial. Jama. 2006; 295:165-71.
160. Pacifico A, Hohnloser SH, Williams JH, et al. Prevention of implantable-defibrillator shocks by treatment with sotalol. d,l-Sotalol Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999; 340:1855-62.
161. Kettering K, Mewis C, Dornberger V, et al. Efficacy of metoprolol and sotalol in the prevention of recurrences of sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias in patients with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol. 2002; 25:1571-6.
162. Echt DS, Liebson PR, Mitchell LB, et al. Mortality and morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide, or placebo. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991; 324:781-8.
163. Seidl K, Hauer B, Schwick NG, et al. Comparison of metoprolol and sotalol in preventing ventricular tachyarrhythmias after the implantation of a cardioverter/defibrillator. Am. J. Cardiol. 1998; 82:744-8.
164. Kuhlkamp V, Mewis C, Mermi J, et al. Suppression of sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias: a comparison of d,l-sotalol with no antiarrhythmic drug treatment. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999; 33:46-52.
165. Brodine WN, Tung RT, Lee JK, et al. Effects of beta-blockers on implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy and survival in the patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy (from the Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial-II). Am. J. Cardiol. 2005; 96:691-5.
166. Reddy VY, Reynolds MR, Neuzil P, et al. Prophylactic catheter ablation for the prevention of defibrillator therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 2007; 357:2657-65.
167. Sapp JL, Wells GA, Parkash R, et al. Ventricular tachycardia ablation versus escalation of antiarrhythmic drugs. N. Engl. J. Med. 2016; 375:111-21.
168. Kuck KH, Schaumann A, Eckardt L, et al. Catheter ablation of stable ventricular tachycardia before defibrillator implantation in patients with coronary heart disease (VTACH): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet (London, England). 2010; 375:31-40.
169. Al-Khatib SM, Daubert JP, Anstrom KJ, et al. Catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia in patients with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator (CALYPSO) pilot trial. Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology. 2015; 26:151-7.
170. Blanck Z, Dhala A, Deshpande S, et al. Bundle branch reentrant ventricular tachycardia: cumulative experience in 48 patients. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. 1993; 4:253-62.
171. Brugada J, Aguinaga L, Mont L, et al. Coronary artery revascularization in patients with sustained ventricular arrhythmias in the chronic phase of a myocardial infarction: effects on the electrophysiologic substrate and outcome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 37:529-33.
172. Sears SF, Jr., Todaro JF, Lewis TS, et al. Examining the psychosocial impact of implantable cardioverter defibrillators: a literature review. Clinical cardiology. 1999; 22:481-9.
173. Lopera G, Stevenson WG, Soejima K, et al. Identification and ablation of three types of ventricular tachycardia involving the his-purkinje system in patients with heart disease. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. 2004; 15:52-8.
174. Mehdirad AA, Keim S, Rist K, et al. Long-term clinical outcome of right bundle branch radiofrequency catheter ablation for treatment of bundle branch reentrant ventricular tachycardia. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol. 1995; 18:2135-43.
175. Dinov B, Fiedler L, Schonbauer R, et al. Outcomes in catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in dilated nonischemic cardiomyopathy compared with ischemic cardiomyopathy: results from the Prospective Heart Centre of Leipzig VT (HELP-VT) Study. Circulation. 2014; 129:728-36.
176. Tanner H, Hindricks G, Volkmer M, et al. Catheter ablation of recurrent scar-related ventricular tachycardia using electroanatomical mapping and irrigated ablation technology: results of the prospective multicenter Euro-VT-study. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. 2010; 21:47-53.
177. Marchlinski FE, Haffajee CI, Beshai JF, et al. Long-term success of irrigated radiofrequency catheter ablation of sustained ventricular tachycardia: post-approval THERMOCOOL VT trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016; 67:674-83.
178. Tung R, Vaseghi M, Frankel DS, et al. Freedom from recurrent ventricular tachycardia after catheter ablation is associated with improved survival in patients with structural heart disease: An International VT Ablation Center Collaborative Group study. Heart rhythm. 2015; 12:1997-2007.
179. Mallidi J, Nadkarni GN, Berger RD, et al. Meta-analysis of catheter ablation as an adjunct to medical therapy for treatment of ventricular tachycardia in patients with structural heart disease. Heart rhythm. 2011; 8:503-10.
180. Calkins H, Epstein A, Packer D, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with structural heart disease using cooled radiofrequency energy: results of a prospective multicenter study. Cooled RF Multi Center Investigators Group. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 35:1905-14.
181. Stevenson WG, Wilber DJ, Natale A, et al. Irrigated radiofrequency catheter ablation guided by electroanatomic mapping for recurrent ventricular tachycardia after myocardial infarction: the multicenter thermocool ventricular tachycardia ablation trial. Circulation. 2008; 118:2773-82.
182. Ackerman MJ, Priori SG, Willems S, et al. HRS/EHRA expert consensus statement on the state of genetic testing for the channelopathies and cardiomyopathies: this document was developed as a partnership between the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS) and the European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA). Europace: European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology: journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology. 2011; 13:1077-109.
183. American Geriatrics Society Expert Panel on the Care of Older Adults with M. Guiding Principles for the Care of Older Adults with Multimorbidity: An Approach for Clinicians. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2012; 60:E1-E25.
184. Hershberger RE, Morales A and Siegfried JD. Clinical and genetic issues in dilated cardiomyopathy: a review for genetics professionals. Genet. Med. 2010; 12:655-67.
185. Piers SR, Tao Q, CF vHvT, et al. Contrast-enhanced MRI-derived scar patterns and associated ventricular tachycardias in nonischemic cardiomyopathy: implications for the ablation strategy. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2013; 6:875-83.
186. Greulich S, Deluigi CC, Gloekler S, et al. CMR imaging predicts death and other adverse events in suspected cardiac sarcoidosis. JACC. Cardiovasc. Imaging. 2013; 6:501-11.
187. Kuruvilla S, Adenaw N, Katwal AB, et al. Late gadolinium enhancement on cardiac magnetic resonance predicts adverse cardiovascular outcomes in nonischemic cardiomyopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging. 2014; 7:250-8.
188. Tokuda M, Tedrow UB, Kojodjojo P, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in nonischemic heart disease. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2012; 5:992-1000.
189. Oloriz T, Silberbauer J, Maccabelli G, et al. Catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmia in nonischemic cardiomyopathy: anteroseptal versus inferolateral scar sub-types. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014; 7:414-23.
190. Proietti R, Essebag V, Beardsall J, et al. Substrate-guided ablation of haemodynamically tolerated and untolerated ventricular tachycardia in patients with structural heart disease: effect of cardiomyopathy type and acute success on long-term outcome. Europace : European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology : journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology. 2015; 17:461-7.
191. Haqqani HM, Tschabrunn CM, Tzou WS, et al. Isolated septal substrate for ventricular tachycardia in nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy: incidence, characterization, and implications. Heart rhythm. 2011; 8:1169-76.
192. Kuhne M, Abrams G, Sarrazin JF, et al. Isolated potentials and pace-mapping as guides for ablation of ventricular tachycardia in various types of nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology. 2010; 21:1017-23.
193. Cano O, Hutchinson M, Lin D, et al. Electroanatomic substrate and ablation outcome for suspected epicardial ventricular tachycardia in left ventricular nonischemic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009; 54:799-808.
194. Delacretaz E, Stevenson WG, Ellison KE, et al. Mapping and radiofrequency catheter ablation of the three types of sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia in nonischemic heart disease. Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology. 2000; 11:11-7.
195. Desai AS, Fang JC, Maisel WH, et al. Implantable defibrillators for the prevention of mortality in patients with nonischemic cardiomyopathy: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Jama. 2004; 292:2874-9.
196. Ruwald MH, Okumura K, Kimura T, et al. Syncope in high-risk cardiomyopathy patients with implantable defibrillators: frequency, risk factors, mechanisms, and association with mortality: results from the multicenter automatic defibrillator implantation trial-reduce inappropriate therapy (MADIT-RIT) study. Circulation. 2014; 129:545-52.
197. Knight BP, Goyal R, Pelosi F, et al. Outcome of patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy and unexplained syncope treated with an implantable defibrillator. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999; 33:1964-70.
198. Brilakis ES, Shen WK, Hammill SC, et al. Role of programmed ventricular stimulation and implantable cardioverter defibrillators in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy and syncope. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol. 2001; 24:1623-30.
199. Fonarow GC, Feliciano Z, Boyle NG, et al. Improved survival in patients with nonischemic advanced heart failure and syncope treated with an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator. Am. J. Cardiol. 2000; 85:981-5.
200. Olshansky B, Poole JE, Johnson G, et al. Syncope predicts the outcome of cardiomyopathy patients: analysis of the SCD-HeFT study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 51:1277-82.
